Characterization and Quantification of Vehicular Emissions in Abuja Municipality – Implications for Public Health
Main Article Content
Keywords
Air Pollution, Vehicular Emissions, Public Health, Abuja Municipality
Abstract
Background: Air pollution from vehicular emissions and other sources accounts for over seven million global deaths annually and contributes significantly to environmental degradation, including climate change. Vehicular emission is not prioritized for control in Nigeria, thus undermining public health and the Sustainable Development Goals 3, 11 and 13. This study aims to characterize vehicular emissions in Abuja municipality and quantify exhaust air pollutants of commonly used vehicles.
Methodology: Cross-sectional exhaust emissions study of vehicles in Abuja Municipal Area Council. Information on the type and age, fuel type, purchase and use category of 543 vehicles on routine Annual Road Worthiness Test at the Computerized Test Center, Abuja. Exhaust levels of CO, CO2 HCHO and PM10 were measured using hand-held devices. IBM SPSS version 26.0.0.0 (2019) statistical software.
Results: The Toyota brand comprised 52.5% of the vehicles. Over 80% were older than 10 years; 85.5% were preowned and 87.3% were used for private purposes. PMS was the dominant fuel used (91.1%). Except for PM10, older vehicles emitted higher levels of the measured pollutants than newer ones. The differences were significant for CO and HCHO. Diesel-fueled and commercial vehicles also emitted higher levels of CO, HCHO and PM10 compared to PMS-fueled and private vehicles respectively.
Conclusions: Strong regulatory policies that discourage over-aged vehicles; speedy adoption of the ECOWAS guidelines on cleaner fuels and emission limits; and coordinated implementation of effective Inspection & Monitoring programmes by relevant government agencies are required to safeguard public health and the environment. We also recommend the introduction of vehicles powered by alternative energy, the use of bicycles, designation of one-way traffic and pedestrian zones.
References
1. Landrigan PJ, Fuller R, Acosta NJR, Adeyi O, Arnold R, Basu N (Nil), et al. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The Lancet, 2018;391(10119):462–512.
2. WHO. Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease Report. 2016.
3. Fisher S, Bellinger DC, Cropper ML, Kumar P, Binagwaho A, Koudenoukpo JB, et al. Air pollution and development in Africa: impacts on health, the economy, and human capital. Lancet Planet Health, 2021; 5 (10): e 681–8.
4. WHO. Air pollution. 2014: https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1 [cited 2021 Nov 9]
5. Shumake-Guillemot J, Jalkanen L, Adhair-Rohani H. Air quality and human health, a priority for joint action. World Meteorological Organization Bulletin 2014;63(2):16-19.
6. Okunromade O, Yin J, Ray C, Adhikari A. Air quality and cancer prevalence trends across the Sub-Saharan African Regions during 2005–2020. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022; 19 (18): 11342. doi: 10.3390/ijerph191811342.
7. Dimala CA, Kadia BM. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the association between ambient air pollution and pulmonary tuberculosis. Scientific Reports, 2022;12 (1): 1–13.
8. Yao L, LiangLiang C, JinYue L, WanMei S, Lili S, YiFan L, et al. Ambient air pollution exposures and risk of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Environ Int, 2019; 124:161–9.
9. Requia WJ, Koutrakis P, Roig HL, Adams MD, Santos CM. Association between vehicular emissions and cardiorespiratory disease risk in Brazil and its variation by spatial clustering of socio-economic factors. Environ Res, 2016; 150: 452–60.
10. Laumbach RJ, Kipen HM. Respiratory health effects of air pollution: update on biomass smoke and traffic pollution. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 2012; 129 (1): 3–11.
11. Dominici F, Daniels M, Zeger SL, Samet JM. Air pollution and mortality. J Am Stat Assoc, 2002; 97 (457):100–11.
12. Dherani MK, Pope D, Tafatatha T, Heinsbroek E, Chartier R, Mwalukomo T, et al. Association between household air pollution and nasopharyngeal pneumococcal carriage in Malawian infants (MSCAPE): a nested, prospective, observational study. Lancet Glob Health, 2022;10 (2): e246–56.
13. Grahame TJ, Schlesinger RB. Cardiovascular health and particulate vehicular emissions: a critical evaluation of the evidence. Air Qual Atmos Health, 2010; 3 (1):3–27.
14. Torres M, Carranza C, Sarkar S, Gonzalez Y, Osornio Vargas A, Black K, et al. Urban airborne particle exposure impairs human lung and blood Mycobacterium tuberculosis immunity. Thorax, 2019; 74 (7): 675–83.
15. Sarkar S, Rivas-Santiago CE, Ibironke OA, Carranza C, Meng Q, Osornio-Vargas Á, et al. Season and size of urban particulate matter differentially affect cytotoxicity and human immune responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLoS One, 2019; 14 (7): e0219122.
16. Ibironke O, Carranza C, Sarkar S, Torres M, Choi HT, Nwoko J, et al. Urban air pollution particulates suppress human T-Cell responses to Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2019; 16 (21): E4112.
17. Chen K, Glonek G, Hansen A, Williams S, Turke J, Salter A, et al. The effects of air pollution on asthma hospital admissions in Adelaide, South Australia, 2003-2013: time-series and case-crossover analyses. Clin Exp Allergy, 2016; 46 (11): 1416–30.
18. Mustapha BA, Blangiardo M, Briggs DJ, Hansell AL. Traffic air pollution and other risk factors for respiratory illness in schoolchildren in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria. Environ Health Perspect, 2011; 119 (10): 1478–82.
19. Ana GREE, Shendell DG, Odeshi TA, Sridhar MKC. Identification and initial characterization of prominent air pollution sources and respiratory health at secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria. J Asthma, 2009; 46 (7): 670–6.
20. Nwachukwu AN, Chukwuocha EO, Igbudu O. A survey on the effects of air pollution on diseases of the people of Rivers State, Nigeria. Afr J Environ Sci Tech, 2012; 6 (10): 371–9.
21. Liu F, Zhang Z, Chen H, Nie S. Associations of ambient air pollutants with regional pulmonary tuberculosis incidence in the central Chinese province of Hubei: A Bayesian spatial-temporal analysis. Environ Health, 2020; 19 (1): 1–10.
22. Jarret M, McConnel R, Wolch J, Chang R, Lam C, Dutton G, et al. Traffic-related air pollution and obesity formation in children: a longitudinal, multilevel analysis. Environ Health, 2014; 13 (1).
23. Harris MH, Gold DR, Rifas-Shiman SL, Melly SJ, Zanobetti A, Coull BA, et al. Prenatal and childhood traffic-related air pollution exposure and childhood executive function and behavior. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 2016; 57: 60–70.
24. Sass V, Kravitz-Wirtz N, Karceski S, Hajat A, Crowder K, Takeuchi D. The effects of air pollution on individual psychological distress. Health Place, 2017; 48: 72–9.
25. WHO. Noncommunicable diseases: Childhood overweight and obesity 2020 https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/noncommunicable-diseases-childhood-overweight-and-obesity
26. Ali N, Islam F. The effects of air pollution on COVID-19 infection and mortality—A review on recent evidence. Front Public Health, 2020; 8:580057.
27. Hernandez Carballo I, Bakola M, Stuckler D. The impact of air pollution on COVID-19 incidence, severity, and mortality: A systematic review of studies in Europe and North America. Environ Res, 2022; 215:114155.
28. WHO. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide GUIDELINE. Geneva; 2021: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228 [cited 2023 Jun 23]
29. Daniels MJ, Dominici F, Samet JM, Zeger SL. Estimating particulate matter-mortality dose-response curves and threshold levels: an analysis of daily time-series for the 20 largest US cities. Am J Epidemiol, 2000; 152 (5): 397–406.
30. Olmo NRS, Saldiva PH do N, Braga ALF, Lin CA, Santos U de P, Pereira LAA. A review of low-level air pollution and adverse effects on human health: implications for epidemiological studies and public policy. Clinics 2011; 66 (4): 681.
31. UNGA (73rd sess. New York) Political declaration of the 3rd high-level meeting of the general assembly on the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases: resolution adopted by the general assembly 2018: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1648984 [cited 2023 Jun 23]
32. WHO. Burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution 2023: https://www.who.int/data/gho/indicator-metadata-registry/imr-details/2259 [cited 2023 Feb 8]
33. Olowoporoku AO, Longhurst JWS, Barnes JH, Edokpayi CA. Towards a new framework for air quality management in Nigeria. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 2011; 147:1–10. Doi.org/10.2495/AIR11001132.
34. Ladan S. Examining Air pollution and control measures in urban centers of Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Engineering and Management, 2013; 4: 621–8.
35. Adeoluwa RO. Appraisal of the operationalisation of national environmental regulations in Nigeria under the national environmental standards and regulations enforcement agency. Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of International Law and Jurisprudence, 2018; 9 (2): 199–215.
36. Nigeria Customs Service. FGN. IMPORT PROHIBITION LIST: https://customs.gov.ng/?page_id=3075 [Cited 2021 Oct 15].
37. FGN. National road traffic regulation 2012. Federal Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette, No. 101; Vol.99 2012: https://frsc.gov.ng/NATROADTRAFFICREGS2012.pdf [cited 2021 Nov 8]
38. UNEP. West African ministers adopt cleaner fuels and vehicles standards. News, 2020: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/west-african-ministers-adopt-cleaner-fuels-and-vehicles-standards
39. UNEP. Nigeria discusses domestication of ECOWAS clean fuels and vehicles directives. 2021: https://www.unep.org/events/workshop/nigeria-discusses-domestication-ecowas-clean-fuels-and-vehicles-directives [cited 2023 Mar 29].
40. Federal Government of Nigeria. FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA OFFICIAL GAZETTE. Government Notice No. 61 (92) 2007: https://environreview.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/NESREA-ACT.pdf [cited 2021 Oct 10]
41. Ibeto C, Ugwu C. Exhaust emissions from engines fueled with petrol, diesel and their blends with biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil. Pol J Environ Stud, 2019; 28 (5): 3197–206.
42. Njoku KL, Rumide TJ, Akinola MO, Adesuyi AA, Jolaoso AO. Ambient air quality monitoring in metropolitan city of Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 2016; 20 (1): 178-185–178–185.
43. Abam F. Vehicular emissions and air quality standards in Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific Research, 2009; 34: 550–60.
44. Okobia EL. Carbon Monoxide: Its impacts on human health in Abuja, Nigeria. 2015 Available online at www.researchgate.net: DOI.10.13140/RG.2.1.20667.3441
45. Hu X, Xu D, Wan Q. Short-term trend forecast of different traffic pollutants in Minnesota based on spot velocity conversion. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2018; 15 (9):1925.
46. Wenzel T, Singer BC, Slott R. Some issues in the statistical analysis of vehicle emissions. Journal of Transportation Statistics, 2000; 1–14.
47. Ekoh HC. Spatial variation of air quality in Mpape area of Abuja, Nigeria. World Sci News, 2020; 140 :79–112.
48. Alzboon K. Trend in exhaust emissions from in-use gasoline vehicles. Environ Eng Manag J, 2009; 8: 11–6.
49. Ghaffarpasand O, Beddows DCS, Ropkins K, Pope FD. Real-world assessment of vehicle air pollutant emissions subset by vehicle type, fuel and EURO class: New findings from the recent UK EDAR field campaigns, and implications for emissions restricted zones. Science of The Total Environment, 2020; 734: 139416.
50. White RH, Spengler JD, Dilwali KM, Barry BE, Samet JM. Report of workshop on traffic, health, and infrastructure planning. Arch Environ Occup Health, 2005; 60 (2): 70–6.
51. Adon M, Yoboué V, Galy-Lacaux C, Liousse C, Diop B, Doumbia EHT, et al. Measurements of NO2, SO2, NH3, HNO3 and O3 in West African urban environments. Atmos Environ, 2016; 135: 31–40.
52. Maduekwe M, Akpan U, Isihak S. Road transport energy consumption and vehicular emissions in Lagos, Nigeria: An application of the LEAP model. Transp Res Interdiscip Perspec, 2020; 6: 100172.
53. Roychowdhury A, Nasim U, Chandola P. Towards clean air in Nigerian Cities, 2016: https://www.cseindia.org/towards-clean-air-in-nigerian-cities-6691
54. Keuken MP, Roemer MGM, Zandveld P, Verbeek RP, Velders GJM. Trends in primary NO2 and exhaust PM emissions from road traffic for the period 2000–2020 and implications for air quality and health in the Netherlands. Atmos Environ, 2012; 54: 313–9.
55. Goel R, Guttikunda SK. Evolution of on-road vehicle exhaust emissions in Delhi. Atmos Environ, 2015; 105: 78–90.
56. Reşitoʇlu IA, Altinişik K, Keskin A. The pollutant emissions from diesel-engine vehicles and exhaust aftertreatment systems. Clean Technol Environ Policy, 2015; 17 (1): 15–27.
57. Winkler SL, Anderson JE, Garza L, Ruona WC, Vogt R, Wallington TJ. Vehicle criteria pollutant (PM, NOx, CO, HCs) emissions: how low should we go? npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, 2018;1 (1): 1–5.
58. Guo H, Zhang Q yu, Shi Y, Wang D hui, Ding S ying, Yan S sha. Characterization of on-road CO, HC and NO emissions for petrol vehicle fleet in China city. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B, 2006; 7 (7): 532–41.
59. DieselNet. Emission Standards: Europe: Cars and light trucks. 2023: https://dieselnet.com/standards/eu/ld.php [cited 2023 Jul 20]
60. Okobia EL, Makwe E, Mgbanyi LLO. Air pollution and human health implications in urban settlements of Abuja, Nigeria. GSJ, 2021; 9 (8): 2540–65.
2. WHO. Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease Report. 2016.
3. Fisher S, Bellinger DC, Cropper ML, Kumar P, Binagwaho A, Koudenoukpo JB, et al. Air pollution and development in Africa: impacts on health, the economy, and human capital. Lancet Planet Health, 2021; 5 (10): e 681–8.
4. WHO. Air pollution. 2014: https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1 [cited 2021 Nov 9]
5. Shumake-Guillemot J, Jalkanen L, Adhair-Rohani H. Air quality and human health, a priority for joint action. World Meteorological Organization Bulletin 2014;63(2):16-19.
6. Okunromade O, Yin J, Ray C, Adhikari A. Air quality and cancer prevalence trends across the Sub-Saharan African Regions during 2005–2020. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022; 19 (18): 11342. doi: 10.3390/ijerph191811342.
7. Dimala CA, Kadia BM. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the association between ambient air pollution and pulmonary tuberculosis. Scientific Reports, 2022;12 (1): 1–13.
8. Yao L, LiangLiang C, JinYue L, WanMei S, Lili S, YiFan L, et al. Ambient air pollution exposures and risk of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Environ Int, 2019; 124:161–9.
9. Requia WJ, Koutrakis P, Roig HL, Adams MD, Santos CM. Association between vehicular emissions and cardiorespiratory disease risk in Brazil and its variation by spatial clustering of socio-economic factors. Environ Res, 2016; 150: 452–60.
10. Laumbach RJ, Kipen HM. Respiratory health effects of air pollution: update on biomass smoke and traffic pollution. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 2012; 129 (1): 3–11.
11. Dominici F, Daniels M, Zeger SL, Samet JM. Air pollution and mortality. J Am Stat Assoc, 2002; 97 (457):100–11.
12. Dherani MK, Pope D, Tafatatha T, Heinsbroek E, Chartier R, Mwalukomo T, et al. Association between household air pollution and nasopharyngeal pneumococcal carriage in Malawian infants (MSCAPE): a nested, prospective, observational study. Lancet Glob Health, 2022;10 (2): e246–56.
13. Grahame TJ, Schlesinger RB. Cardiovascular health and particulate vehicular emissions: a critical evaluation of the evidence. Air Qual Atmos Health, 2010; 3 (1):3–27.
14. Torres M, Carranza C, Sarkar S, Gonzalez Y, Osornio Vargas A, Black K, et al. Urban airborne particle exposure impairs human lung and blood Mycobacterium tuberculosis immunity. Thorax, 2019; 74 (7): 675–83.
15. Sarkar S, Rivas-Santiago CE, Ibironke OA, Carranza C, Meng Q, Osornio-Vargas Á, et al. Season and size of urban particulate matter differentially affect cytotoxicity and human immune responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLoS One, 2019; 14 (7): e0219122.
16. Ibironke O, Carranza C, Sarkar S, Torres M, Choi HT, Nwoko J, et al. Urban air pollution particulates suppress human T-Cell responses to Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2019; 16 (21): E4112.
17. Chen K, Glonek G, Hansen A, Williams S, Turke J, Salter A, et al. The effects of air pollution on asthma hospital admissions in Adelaide, South Australia, 2003-2013: time-series and case-crossover analyses. Clin Exp Allergy, 2016; 46 (11): 1416–30.
18. Mustapha BA, Blangiardo M, Briggs DJ, Hansell AL. Traffic air pollution and other risk factors for respiratory illness in schoolchildren in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria. Environ Health Perspect, 2011; 119 (10): 1478–82.
19. Ana GREE, Shendell DG, Odeshi TA, Sridhar MKC. Identification and initial characterization of prominent air pollution sources and respiratory health at secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria. J Asthma, 2009; 46 (7): 670–6.
20. Nwachukwu AN, Chukwuocha EO, Igbudu O. A survey on the effects of air pollution on diseases of the people of Rivers State, Nigeria. Afr J Environ Sci Tech, 2012; 6 (10): 371–9.
21. Liu F, Zhang Z, Chen H, Nie S. Associations of ambient air pollutants with regional pulmonary tuberculosis incidence in the central Chinese province of Hubei: A Bayesian spatial-temporal analysis. Environ Health, 2020; 19 (1): 1–10.
22. Jarret M, McConnel R, Wolch J, Chang R, Lam C, Dutton G, et al. Traffic-related air pollution and obesity formation in children: a longitudinal, multilevel analysis. Environ Health, 2014; 13 (1).
23. Harris MH, Gold DR, Rifas-Shiman SL, Melly SJ, Zanobetti A, Coull BA, et al. Prenatal and childhood traffic-related air pollution exposure and childhood executive function and behavior. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 2016; 57: 60–70.
24. Sass V, Kravitz-Wirtz N, Karceski S, Hajat A, Crowder K, Takeuchi D. The effects of air pollution on individual psychological distress. Health Place, 2017; 48: 72–9.
25. WHO. Noncommunicable diseases: Childhood overweight and obesity 2020 https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/noncommunicable-diseases-childhood-overweight-and-obesity
26. Ali N, Islam F. The effects of air pollution on COVID-19 infection and mortality—A review on recent evidence. Front Public Health, 2020; 8:580057.
27. Hernandez Carballo I, Bakola M, Stuckler D. The impact of air pollution on COVID-19 incidence, severity, and mortality: A systematic review of studies in Europe and North America. Environ Res, 2022; 215:114155.
28. WHO. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide GUIDELINE. Geneva; 2021: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228 [cited 2023 Jun 23]
29. Daniels MJ, Dominici F, Samet JM, Zeger SL. Estimating particulate matter-mortality dose-response curves and threshold levels: an analysis of daily time-series for the 20 largest US cities. Am J Epidemiol, 2000; 152 (5): 397–406.
30. Olmo NRS, Saldiva PH do N, Braga ALF, Lin CA, Santos U de P, Pereira LAA. A review of low-level air pollution and adverse effects on human health: implications for epidemiological studies and public policy. Clinics 2011; 66 (4): 681.
31. UNGA (73rd sess. New York) Political declaration of the 3rd high-level meeting of the general assembly on the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases: resolution adopted by the general assembly 2018: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1648984 [cited 2023 Jun 23]
32. WHO. Burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution 2023: https://www.who.int/data/gho/indicator-metadata-registry/imr-details/2259 [cited 2023 Feb 8]
33. Olowoporoku AO, Longhurst JWS, Barnes JH, Edokpayi CA. Towards a new framework for air quality management in Nigeria. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 2011; 147:1–10. Doi.org/10.2495/AIR11001132.
34. Ladan S. Examining Air pollution and control measures in urban centers of Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Engineering and Management, 2013; 4: 621–8.
35. Adeoluwa RO. Appraisal of the operationalisation of national environmental regulations in Nigeria under the national environmental standards and regulations enforcement agency. Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of International Law and Jurisprudence, 2018; 9 (2): 199–215.
36. Nigeria Customs Service. FGN. IMPORT PROHIBITION LIST: https://customs.gov.ng/?page_id=3075 [Cited 2021 Oct 15].
37. FGN. National road traffic regulation 2012. Federal Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette, No. 101; Vol.99 2012: https://frsc.gov.ng/NATROADTRAFFICREGS2012.pdf [cited 2021 Nov 8]
38. UNEP. West African ministers adopt cleaner fuels and vehicles standards. News, 2020: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/west-african-ministers-adopt-cleaner-fuels-and-vehicles-standards
39. UNEP. Nigeria discusses domestication of ECOWAS clean fuels and vehicles directives. 2021: https://www.unep.org/events/workshop/nigeria-discusses-domestication-ecowas-clean-fuels-and-vehicles-directives [cited 2023 Mar 29].
40. Federal Government of Nigeria. FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA OFFICIAL GAZETTE. Government Notice No. 61 (92) 2007: https://environreview.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/NESREA-ACT.pdf [cited 2021 Oct 10]
41. Ibeto C, Ugwu C. Exhaust emissions from engines fueled with petrol, diesel and their blends with biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil. Pol J Environ Stud, 2019; 28 (5): 3197–206.
42. Njoku KL, Rumide TJ, Akinola MO, Adesuyi AA, Jolaoso AO. Ambient air quality monitoring in metropolitan city of Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 2016; 20 (1): 178-185–178–185.
43. Abam F. Vehicular emissions and air quality standards in Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific Research, 2009; 34: 550–60.
44. Okobia EL. Carbon Monoxide: Its impacts on human health in Abuja, Nigeria. 2015 Available online at www.researchgate.net: DOI.10.13140/RG.2.1.20667.3441
45. Hu X, Xu D, Wan Q. Short-term trend forecast of different traffic pollutants in Minnesota based on spot velocity conversion. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2018; 15 (9):1925.
46. Wenzel T, Singer BC, Slott R. Some issues in the statistical analysis of vehicle emissions. Journal of Transportation Statistics, 2000; 1–14.
47. Ekoh HC. Spatial variation of air quality in Mpape area of Abuja, Nigeria. World Sci News, 2020; 140 :79–112.
48. Alzboon K. Trend in exhaust emissions from in-use gasoline vehicles. Environ Eng Manag J, 2009; 8: 11–6.
49. Ghaffarpasand O, Beddows DCS, Ropkins K, Pope FD. Real-world assessment of vehicle air pollutant emissions subset by vehicle type, fuel and EURO class: New findings from the recent UK EDAR field campaigns, and implications for emissions restricted zones. Science of The Total Environment, 2020; 734: 139416.
50. White RH, Spengler JD, Dilwali KM, Barry BE, Samet JM. Report of workshop on traffic, health, and infrastructure planning. Arch Environ Occup Health, 2005; 60 (2): 70–6.
51. Adon M, Yoboué V, Galy-Lacaux C, Liousse C, Diop B, Doumbia EHT, et al. Measurements of NO2, SO2, NH3, HNO3 and O3 in West African urban environments. Atmos Environ, 2016; 135: 31–40.
52. Maduekwe M, Akpan U, Isihak S. Road transport energy consumption and vehicular emissions in Lagos, Nigeria: An application of the LEAP model. Transp Res Interdiscip Perspec, 2020; 6: 100172.
53. Roychowdhury A, Nasim U, Chandola P. Towards clean air in Nigerian Cities, 2016: https://www.cseindia.org/towards-clean-air-in-nigerian-cities-6691
54. Keuken MP, Roemer MGM, Zandveld P, Verbeek RP, Velders GJM. Trends in primary NO2 and exhaust PM emissions from road traffic for the period 2000–2020 and implications for air quality and health in the Netherlands. Atmos Environ, 2012; 54: 313–9.
55. Goel R, Guttikunda SK. Evolution of on-road vehicle exhaust emissions in Delhi. Atmos Environ, 2015; 105: 78–90.
56. Reşitoʇlu IA, Altinişik K, Keskin A. The pollutant emissions from diesel-engine vehicles and exhaust aftertreatment systems. Clean Technol Environ Policy, 2015; 17 (1): 15–27.
57. Winkler SL, Anderson JE, Garza L, Ruona WC, Vogt R, Wallington TJ. Vehicle criteria pollutant (PM, NOx, CO, HCs) emissions: how low should we go? npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, 2018;1 (1): 1–5.
58. Guo H, Zhang Q yu, Shi Y, Wang D hui, Ding S ying, Yan S sha. Characterization of on-road CO, HC and NO emissions for petrol vehicle fleet in China city. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B, 2006; 7 (7): 532–41.
59. DieselNet. Emission Standards: Europe: Cars and light trucks. 2023: https://dieselnet.com/standards/eu/ld.php [cited 2023 Jul 20]
60. Okobia EL, Makwe E, Mgbanyi LLO. Air pollution and human health implications in urban settlements of Abuja, Nigeria. GSJ, 2021; 9 (8): 2540–65.
Article Sidebar
Published
Jun 20, 2024
Article Details
How to Cite
Ezeigwe, N. M., Adinma, E. D., Okobia, E. L., & Schwander, S. (2024). Characterization and Quantification of Vehicular Emissions in Abuja Municipality – Implications for Public Health . Nigerian Medical Journal, 65(3), 276–291. https://doi.org/10.60787/nmj.v65i3.383
Section
Original Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
This is an open-access journal and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike License 4.0. This licence allows users to download and share, remix, tweak and build upon the article for non-commercial purposes, so long as the original authorship is acknowledged and the new creations are licensed under identical terms.